COU1202: Cross Cultural Issues in Therapeutic Practice (Research Paper Sample)

COU1202 Cross Cultural Issues in Therapeutic Practice
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(27, 08, 2013)
Part 1
Race acted as a significant sociological theme that was shaped by political processes in the 19th century. In the 21st century, race has been described by sociologists as "a social construct related to the ways that people and cultures interpret, and react to, minor physical differences’, (Van Krieken et al., 2006: 264). The implication made by the statement is that race is a social construct developed by people to differentiate one group of people from another. In most cases, people are grouped based on their genetic diversity where one group of people is categorised as biologically superior over the other (van Krieken, 2010). For example, during the apartheid era in South Africa, the Blacks were discriminated against because of their genetic makeup, hence the act of racism. Most of the sociologists have refuted this kind of grouping people based on their genetic makeup. Instead, ethnicity should be used to classify or group people in a society.
Racism which draws its origin from the term race is the kind of behaviour and mentality of discriminating people on the grounds of their genetic makeup or race. In other terms, it is the exclusion, discrimination, or rejection of people on the racial basis (origins (van Krieken, 2010). For example, apartheid of South Africa was a form of racism. Also, in U.S most of the African-Americans were denied their rights to vote in the 1960s purely because they were black. With reference to Australia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples were discriminated against on racial grounds as they could note vote. For example, when an Aborigine commits a crime together with a non-indigenous Australian, the Aborigine is more likely to get a tougher sentence because typically Aborigines are stereotyped as violent people.
Ethnicity on the other hand is described by sociologist as cultural traits which are shared by a group of people which differentiate them from another group. Some of these cultural traits are such as national origin, religion, and language among others. Through voluntary means, people are able to place themselves into an ethnic group or category (van Krieken, 2010). In Australia for example, the word ethnic could be used to describe minority groups such as the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The term ethnicity is also used while describing groups of people sharing the same language, race or religion, but with different societal and cultural origins (van Krieken, 2010). For example, we could categorise Asian-Australian as an ethnic minority group because of the shared cultural traits such as language.
Although sometimes prejudice is often mistaken to have the same meaning as discrimination, the two terms have different meanings. Prejudice is used to describe irrational opinions and attitudes which are upheld by one group over the other. It could also be used to describe preconceived beliefs levelled against a group of people or on their cultural practices. Prejudice could be either negative or positive, where negative prejudice often results to discrimination. For example, stereotypes have been developed towards Aborigines such as dirty, irrational, lazy, drunken, and stupid people (van Krieken, 2010).
Part 2
White Australia policy
The 'White Australia' policy was used to describe the Australia approach adapted to curtail immigrants, especially non-whites from entering Australia. It entailed numerous historical policies which barred non-whites immigration (NSW Government, 2013a). The White Australia policy is traced back from 1880 until it was abolished completely in 1973. The White Australia policy was basically seen as an immigration policy that was in favour of "white" superiority. The policy was under major criticism as it was viewed as a racial policy used to exclude coloured races from Australia. According to Cope, Castles and Kalantzis (1991), the aim was to retain homogenous Australia with the aim of achieving cohesiveness and unity. Its complete abolition made Australia a multicultural society.
Reasons for its introduction
The 'White Australia' policy was introduced ensure that Australia remained homogenous so as to retain cohesiveness and unity (Cope, Castles & Kalantzis, 1991). This argument is supported and discussed by functionalist sociologists like Emile Durkheim. Durkheim argued that despite the importance of diversity and division of labour in any society, to some extend solidarity or social cohesion was necessary to ensure the well being of society which was only realized through shared norms, values and religion (van Krieken, 2005). Moreover, White race according to Charles Henry Pearson was necessary if Australia was to pursue its development plans via civilization (Moran, 2005).
Sir Henry Parkes in 1888 told the New South Wales parliament that "if this young nation is to maintain the fabric of its liberties unassailed and unimpaired, it cannot admit into its population any element that of necessity be of an inferior nature and character" (Cope et a;. 1991, p.3). The sentiments reflect how non-whites were viewed as inferior in character and nature and the reason why cohesion and unity could not be achieved. In the same time, Sir Henry Parkes stated that the Influx of Chinese Restriction Bill of 1888 was vital as it would curb ethnic social conflict between the Australians and non-whites, especially the Chinese. The argument made was that inferior race which was regarded as minority would drag the young nation behind because they had different cultural backgrounds. Functionalist sociologists argue that shared norms and values ensure that a society move together (van Krieken, 2005). On the other hand, the consensus theorists have observed that a society could only survive if it different parts were compatible. From this sociological perspective, it could be argued that the drive for the 'White Australia' policy was perceived as a social institution which would assist in realizing the functional prerequisites of society.
Impact of a racist immigration history on the attitudes and behaviours of contemporary Australians
The history of racist immigration in Australia has had some influence on the behaviours and attitudes of contemporary Australians. In the 21st century, the Australian society has become more culturally diverse after adopting a more popular culture (NSW Government, 2013). Under the Australian popular culture, contemporary Australians have been able to embrace multiculturism as a way of life. Nonetheless, Holton (1998) observes that "some Australians feel a threat to social cohesion when hearing individuals speaking another unfamiliar language, or seeing them eating unfamiliar food" (p.1). The implication made is that even in the contemporary Australian society, culture cannot be disregarded as it forms the basis of the society and shapes people’s ways of lives (Kimmel & Aronson, 2009). Although racism is still evident in Australia, racists Australians usually use terms such as equality of opportunity or language of inclusivity while addressing issues related to special treatment towards a particular ethnic grouping (van Krieken, 2010). Therefore, although culture is not entirely static, it definitely shapes some of the future events.
Classical sociologists such as, Emile Durkheim, Marx Weber, Karl Marx, and Augusto Comte observe that historical forces of the past are more likely to shape contemporary life (van Krieken, 2005). With reference to racist immigration history, there have been some contemporary expressions towards racism which are related to nationhood and cohesion. For example, some of the contemporary Australians still belief that cultural diversity and nationhood are incompatible. In other words, nationhood cannot be achieved after cultural diversity has been embraced in a society. This is because even on modern society, lack of shared values and norms act as an impediment to unity and cohesion. Some racists beliefs such as description of a real Australian still exist which is shaped by the historical immigration racists. For example, some of the contemporary Australians have embraced an ideology of national culture shaped by the past where minority cultures (such as Aboriginal people) are viewed as threat to social cohesion (NSW Government, 2013). From a sociological perspective, the behaviour and status of minority groups are judged and defined on the basis of the dominant group. Even in the modern Australian society, Aboriginal community has been prejudiced and discriminated against in place of work, in health, and nation building.
Efforts to eradicate discriminations and racism against minorities
After the White Australia policy was abolished in the 1940s, government organisations and successive Australian governments have played major roles towards the eradication of discrimination and racism. For example, the successive Australian governments have ensured that minority groups such as the aborigines could exercise their constitution rights via voting (Australian Electoral Commission, 2013). Also, numerous laws and regulations have been passed which eradicate discrimination and racism. Some of these laws and regulations are such as the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 which was the first racial discrimination legislation in Australia. Also, the Act made racial discrimination illegal in Australia. Other laws are such as the Racial Hatred Act of 1975 which prohibited any form of public acts (based on race, ethnic origin, or colour) which would be regarded as intimidating, humiliating, insulting or offending to minority groups. Lastly, the Australian Human Rights Commission was established to safeguar...