THE END OF THE HISTORY AND THE LAST MAN (Book Review Sample)

School: Ateneo de Davao University Course and Department: Political Science under Arts and Social Sciences Subject: International Relations THE END OF THE HISTORY AND THE LAST MAN by Francis Fukuyama Intelligently and comprehensively written, the book has elaborated a well-transitioned explanation on the causes and pathway toward the end of history. Francis Fukuyama has utilized political and philosophical ideas to present a thesis regarding the entire and complex historical process of this world. I think that the book is one of the best and mesmerizing ‘not -boring’ versions of history textbooks. Concepts such as thymos and unidirectional path of history were all new to me. This book is truly satisfying at some point and seems controversial at the same time. Nevertheless, this should remain a must read for any political science student. The author started the book with a chapter explaining how the 20th century made the West pessimistic. There were questions regarding the existence of progress in the course of time. The 20th century was also contrasted to the optimism in the 19th century because of modern technology and free democratic governments that followed after bloody wars in Europe. However, the pessimism on 20th century was largely because of cruelty and shattered expectations. The First World War did not only have destructive consequences but had negative psychological impacts as well. What was known as virtues of loyalty, hard work and patriotism were carried with the massive killing of people. WW1 was just like an initial indication of many chaos and evils to come such as genocide during Hitler’s regime. These upsetting and painful events backed up intellectual crisis. Historical progress was hard to determine as humanity was led to not just one or single direction. Because of this, many believed that communism was going to be permanent, thus, leaving everyone shocked when communism collapsed in 1980. Because of this, the hopeful ones were no longer looking upon the Soviet Union as their representation of the future. Nonetheless, today, there are numerous stable democracies that have sustained prosperity and stability. Now that status quo presents different stable democracies, the second chapter entitled The Weakness of Strong States I, narrates instances of countries which have had strong practices of authoritarianism and totalitarianism then sooner transformed into democracies. The never thought of countries to be included in the mainstream democracy, became actual liberal democracies. However, anomalies or hideous parts of democracies started to come out. Democracies in Southern Europe were compared with that of new Latin American countries. Why did all these happen was because of the crisis on the level of ideas. Legitimacy was crucial because this was an essential component of getting people or armies to follow you but a crisis of legitimacy means crisis within the elites. In some cases, strong military governments were proved to be ineffective. Overall, despite the differences of these democracies, their transformation towards this path did not happen overnight. Transformations toward democracy took time. This chapter discusses one type of state and how it slowly vanished. The third chapter thoroughly explained what totalitarianism is or at least what’s in a totalitarian state. This kind of state sought to control every aspect of the state totally, even up to the personal relationships of the citizens. During the Soviet era, this idea and practice of controlling were believed to be an instrument to change the citizens’ beliefs and values. However, “the totalitarian state could not only perpetuate itself indefinitely but could replicate itself throughout the world like a virus,” (Fukuyama, 1992 p. 5). This means that totalitarianism can and will continue to spread but in a negative way and with negative impacts. The timeline of major milestones had its ending finally when USSR dissolved. The economy was the basic weakness which some Westerners have neglected. This true weakness of then Soviet State has to be viewed in a larger crisis which was the crisis of legitimacy, as what was mentioned previously. If a totalitarian state can control almost anything and everything, it was impossible to control human thoughts.With this, civil societies, which were sought to be destroyed by a totalitarian state before, had regenerated in some countries. Now that we have understood the impossibility of controlling human thoughts, the persistence of totalitarian states soon perished.The fourth chapter talks about the worldwide Liberal Revolution. As what was mentioned in the two previous chapters, strong states’ weaknesses opened new ways for democracy. It was then realized that economic liberalization and market competition were essential needs.Liberal democracy has now remained a powerful competitor. Liberalism refers to the recognition one one’s rights and freedom while democracy means the universal right of citizens to political participation.In this chapter, liberalism was also explained in the context of economics which refers to the free exchange of economic activities. Liberal democracy has remained unchallenged and people’s sovereignty remains the universal principle. This liberal revolution was never imagined in human history and did not even happen before. And the old question now rises again, is it now possible to write a Universal History of mankind? Chapter 5 begins the second part of the book which talks about the old age of humanity. Entitled An Idea for a Universal History, it discusses what was asked in the previous chapter. This is not to create a history of the universe but attempt to find a general, meaningful pattern in the overall development of human societies. Aristotle claimed that no regime could ever satisfy people’s needs. This liberal revolution might lead to tyranny. In the Western tradition, Christianity was the first true Universal History wherein end of history comes on the Day of Judgment. But there were also attempts at writing one by some scientists who emphasized the knowledge and mastery of universal laws. Hegel also contributed the idea that Universal History of Mankind meant nothing but only man’s progressive rise to full rationality. The promise of the beginning of the ‘modernization theory’ was the last significant Universal History to be written. Given that some countries industrialized and democratized first, other countries will eventually follow. The sixth chapter which is entitled the Mechanism of Desire, goes back to the question, ‘is history directional?’ If history is not to repeat itself, there has to be a mechanism that dictates a single path. This may answer the previous chapter’s question about the idea of universal history. It drives us back to the idea that modern natural science is the only thing that is directional in the entire human social endeavor. The advent of Scientific Method has provided a directional mechanism for explaining historical developments. This is because firstly, the persistence of war competition put pressure on states to adapt and engage with modern technology. Secondly, the search for the satisfaction of human desires which we also call economic development project explains why modern science can produce directional change. Before the chapter ended, pessimists were still doubtful on the idea of a directional historical progress or change but modern natural science was a possible underlying mechanism to this idea. However, it should not be considered as the only cause of change. Now that the book has introduced the discourse of modern natural science on historical change, a question arises again. ‘Is the directionality of history reversible?’. The seventh chapter answers the previous question if mankind can go to a reversed direction, thus, having the title No Barbarians at the gates. This problem can be narrowed down to two parts. First is if modern natural science can be rejected by societies and second is if global cataclysm can lead to the loss of modern natural science.There have been occurrences that anti-technological doctrines became strong. And all these go back to Rousseau’s doubt on the goodness of historical progress. Rousseau was known for his philosophy of praising a life lived in an uncivilized and primitive manner. Extreme events could not still break the grip of science’s ability to replicate. This means that nobody could eliminate the memory of the method of producing weapons. Therefore, mankind can always make use of science and generate technology. As what this chapter’s title says, there are no true barbarians at the gates because anybody could take advantage of science for military purposes. Because there are no Barbarians at the gates and the ability to make use of science is for everyone, it leads to an Accumulation without End. This title of the chapter presents the unfolding of modern natural science.It demonstrates that modern science leads to economic capitalism and liberal political democracy. Our Mechanism, otherwise known as the modern natural science, needs to be extended. Modern natural science has obviously continued to dictate industrialization. Also, capitalism was undeniably a champion as an economic system, and this can be explained regarding the Mechanism than liberal democracy. In this part of the book, central planning was explained to be slowly diminishing because of technological innovation’s need for a free atmosphere. As modern economies emerged, these went beyond the grasp of centralized bureaucracies’ capabilities. Overall, technological innovation has pushed global market competition as well as accumulation without end. The idea of continuous accumulation leads us to this chapter. The ninth chapter talks about socialism versus capitalism. For countries that have not yet reached industrialization, there were arguments as to ...