Anthropology Essay (Essay Sample)

Chapter 15: Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernatural

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, having fully read it and reviewed the central themes, students should be able to:

1.         Describe the anthropological approach to religion and spirituality.

2.         Define the concept of a worldview and its relationship to religion.

3.         List the main functions of religion and why it has continued for thousands of years.

4.         Explain how religion functions as a source of social control.

5.         Understand the significance of myth in cross-cultural societies.

6.         Discuss the supernatural components that constitute religion, which include:

            a.         Gods and goddesses

            b.         Ancestral spirits

            c.         Animism

            d.        Animatism

7.         Discuss the religious specialists found in world religions, which include priests and priestesses and shamans.

8.         Provide a definition of the shamanic complex and its importance to shamanism. 

9.         Define rites of passage and how they relate to rituals and ceremonies. 

10.       Differentiate between imitative and contagious magic.

11.       Explain the functions behind witchcraft in a society. 

12.       Discuss how revitalization movements function and why they might be associated with periods of significant cultural upheaval.

Detailed Chapter Outline

I.         CHALLENGE ISSUE AND STUDENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES

II.        THE ROLE OF RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

            A.        Traditional religion and spiritual beliefs serve many social purposes:

                        a.   reduces psychological anxiety

                        b.   reinforces group norms

                        c.   provides moral sanctions for individual contact

                        d.   furnishes a common ideology

B.        In the 19^th century, the European intellectual tradition argued that science would replace religion, but it has not occurred; faith has remained dominant and dynamic

III.      THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH TO RELIGION

1. In the attempt to remain unbiased in the study of religion cross-culturally, anthropologists usually examine spirituality and religion within the context of a society’s worldview
2. The anthropological definition of religion has shifted depending on the literature and the individual; however, for the purposes of this text, religion may be defined as:
   1. “An organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere or the supernatural, along with associated ceremonial practices by which people try to interpret and/or influence aspects of the universe otherwise beyond their control”
3. Spirituality, on the other hand, deals with many of these same issues but is usually practiced individually rather than collectively

IV.      MYTH

1. Members of a religion typically share certain beliefs known as myths
   1. Myths provide explanation
   2. They provide a rationale for beliefs and practices
   3. They set cultural standards for “right” behavior
   4. They express part of  a traditional worldview
2. These sacred stories are found cross-culturally

V.        SUPERNATURAL BEINGS AND POWERS

1. When religion is placed in a cross-cultural context, many of the beliefs and ceremonies of one religion often fulfill the same functions as another religion
2. One key feature of religion is the belief in supernatural forces and/or spiritual beings, which might be called upon to control a situation that cannot be controlled in any other way
3. Supernatural forces or spiritual beings might also be reflected in:
   1. The presence of Gods and Goddesses, which usually are thought of as those that control the universe
      1.                                                                           i.      The presence of more than one god is known as polytheism
      2.                                                                         ii.      A collection of goddesses and gods is known as a pantheon
      3.                                                                       iii.      Whether a culture group recognizes gods, goddesses, or both often is reflective of the societies organization and how the genders relate to one another on a daily basis
   2. The belief in ancestral spirits
4. The widespread belief in animism, or the notion that nature (which includes humans, animals, plants, mountains, rivers, and other natural elements) is filled with souls and ghosts
   1. Animism usually occurs in societies where people view themselves as being part of nature rather than holding power over it
5. The concept of animatism, or the belief that nature is energized by an impersonal spirit, energy, or supernatural potency
   1. This has been referred to as mana, orenda, or manitou, or perhaps is similar to the idea of the “The Force” explored in the Star Wars movies
6. Some religious traditions consider geographic places to be spiritually sacred
   1. These place may figure prominently in religious ceremonies or spiritual rituals

VI.      RELIGIOUS SPECIALISTS

A.        Another key aspect is the presence of religious specialists, or the individuals that guide, direct, or supplement the society’s or an individual’s religious practices

B.        Religious specialists might include:

a.  Priests and priestesses

1.                                                                           i.      Female religious specialists are usually found in societies that recognize both gods and goddesses and where women in society make a publicly recognized contribution to the economy
2. Shamans
   1.                                                                           i.      Originally the term shaman was applied to medical-religious specialists; however, it has grown to include a variety of part-time religious specialists, spiritual leaders, and traditional medical healers
   2.                                                                         ii.      The study of shamans in anthropology has a long, fascinating history

C.        Often the translation of religious belief into physical activity or action is done through the process of ritual or ceremony

a.   One aspect of ritual and ceremony is the rite of passage, which marks important stages within an individual’s life

1. Rites of passage usually occur in three stages:
   1. Separation
   2. Transition
   3. Incorporation
   4. One idea behind rites of passages is that they indicate an individual’s transition from one social stage to another.  For example:
      1.                                                                           i.      Australian Aborigines have a male initiation rite where women ritually cry and bodily operations such as a circumcision or knocking out a tooth occurs
      2.                                                                         ii.      Mende girls in West Africa are prepared for womanhood by being removed from society following the biological marker of menstruation. They discard childhood clothing for adult dress, smear their bodies in white clay, and undergo a clitoridectomy that symbolizes their transition into becoming “all women” who are in knowledgeable control of their sexuality and eligible for marriage and childbearing
2. Groups also participate in rite of intensification that take place during a

crisis in the life of the group and serves to bind individuals together.  A crisis can include a death, change in season, and harvest.

VII.     MAGIC

1. The anthropological concept of magic centers on the belief that supernatural powers or energy can be directed to act in specific ways for specific end goals if a series of actions or formulas are carried out
2. Magic has been broken into two main categories:
   1. Imitative magic
   2. Contagious magic

VIII. WITCHCRAFT

1. Based on such notions of magic, it is also thought that some people enjoy an innate power to harness spirits or energy or an innate psychic power capable of causing death, sickness, or harm
   1. This process is known as witchcraft
   2. It involves divination, such as foretelling the future by interpreting omens

B.        There are several functions that witchcraft fulfills in society:

1. For example, if an illness was seemingly brought on by a witch’s curse or spell, then it is possible to cure the illness by counter-measures
2. Witchcraft also provides a way to explain unfortunate or disastrous events
   1.                                                                           i.      This is particularly evident in witch-hunts throughout history

IX.      RELIGION IN CULTURAL CHANGE: REVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS

A.        Revitalization movements are often a cultural response to widespread social disruption and collective feelings of great stress and despair

1. One of the more classic accounts of revitalization movements is the cargo cult
2. Other revitalization movements have formed in the United States, including:
   1.                                                                           i.      Mormonism
   2.                                                                         ii.      Unification Church of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon

X.        PERSISTENCE OF RELIGION AND SPIRTUALITY

A.        Traditional religion and spiritual beliefs serve many social purposes, as humans continue to explore metaphysically or spiritually, as well as scientifically

XI.      CHAPTER CHECKLIST AND QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

Key Terms

Animatism

Animism

Cargo Cult

Contagious Magic

Divination

Imitative magic

Magic

Myth

Pantheon

Polytheism

Priest or Priestess

Religion

Ritual

Rite of Passage

Rite of Intensification

Shaman

Spirituality

Witchcraft

Worldview