How Blacks were Discriminated and Relegated to Second Class Citizenship and Servitude after the Civil War (Essay Sample)

Race and Minorities
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Race and Minorities
1. How Blacks were Discriminated and Relegated to Second Class Citizenship and Servitude after the Civil War (1860-1865)
History casts a gloomy shadow on the whole issue of black assimilation in America. According to Rose (1997), for several decades after the civil war, the blacks in America were discriminated upon, majorly through oppression and exploitation, basically by the color of their skin. For instance, in post-Revolutionary America, commonly known as the era of freedom, which started in the mid-1780s, the blacks were entirely excluded. They were regarded and treated as lesser human beings. As a result, they experienced discrimination in several aspects of their lives. In the view of Steinberg (1989), slavery’s birthright of social inequality has persevered in American society even after 120 years succeeding post-civil war that served to liberate slavery, a form of discrimination in America.
Legally omitted from the white world, the blacks were compelled to establish their own political, social, and economic institutions. For instance, the blacks went to high-poverty schools compared to their counterpart whites (Rose, 1997). As a result, they were subjected to less superior curriculum and had tutors who had little academic expectations from them. This in turn, negatively impacted their academic attainment.
The blacks also had little or no access to health care. Those who accessed it received poor quality health care. Moreover, the experiences of some incidents of discrimination evoked psychic distress that badly affected their health (Steinberg, 1989). Moreover, they were subjected to stereotypes that majorly intimidated their psychosocial environment and discriminated their living conditions. In an attempt to build a solid ethnic base in the black community, the blacks created a whole new identity, the African American identity.
2. The "Jewish Problem" in American Higher Education
In the history of higher education in American, the Jews have not only been marginalized but also discriminated. During and after the First World War, American Jewry students were victims of anti-Semitism and most of the esteemed schools restricted Jewish enrolment in the 1920s (Steinberg, 1989). For instance, some Jewish students in Harvard did not consider admitting the Jewish students. The Jews were mostly resented in higher education. By 1919, approximately 80% of city college students and New York's Hunter were Jews. At Harvard, the number of Jews in tripled to approximately 21% by 1922 from roughly 7% in 1900 (Rose, 1997). The Jews were majorly considered competitive, willing to excel academically, but less interested in co-curricular activities like organized sports. Consequently, non-Jews accused these students of being socially unskilled, clannish, and unable or unwilling to fit in. Rose (1997), argues that according to the non-Jews, enrolling a higher population of Jewish students had the effect of ruining the college by causing elite non-Jews students to transfer to other schools. Harvard school, for instance, would not be ruined because of the incoming bad character of the Jews, but because the coming in of many Jews students would mean they would readily mingle with the rest of the students, and this was considered improper (Steinberg, 1989). This mingling could only be prevented by imposing strict restrictions and quotas. In 1922, the Jewish student population in Harvard was limited by a secret attempt to impose a quota. The committee of admission in Harvard was asked to only admit non-Jews and to impose relatively higher standards for admission for the Jewish students who were joining as freshmen.
3. The Nature of Prejudice
Prejudice and discrimination normally go hand in hand. However, this is not always the case. Sometimes individuals can be prejudiced but not discriminate (Steinberg, 1989). Similarly, at times individuals might not be prejudiced but still discriminate. Robert Merton, a sociologist, created a model that shows the relationships between discrimination and prejudice, and how they can vary. In his four groupings, Merton categorized people by how they reject or accept the American doctrine, that is, the right to equitable access to freedom, opportunity, and justice, regardless of religion, race, or ethnic origin (Rose, 1997). His first category of people is the unprejudiced non-discriminator. The majority of people in this group are activists who do anything possible to reduce both discrimination and prejudice in society. His second group of people is the unprejudiced discriminator. Individuals in this group may back efforts to keep off the minorities in their neighborhood due to fear of its deterioration (Rose, 1997). These individuals often feel shame and guilt since they act against their beliefs.
The prejudiced non-discriminator is Merton’s third group. According to Steinberg (1989), this category of individuals believes in several stereotypes about others and often feel hostility towards them. However, they remain silent in the presence of people who are more tolerant. Lastly, Merton describes the prejudiced discriminator. According to him, people in this category experience no conflict between behavior and attitudes. (Steinberg, 1989). They not only express their beliefs openly but also practice discriminate. Moreover, they defy the law when necessary.
4. Effects and Reactions of Discrimination on Ethnic and Racial Minorities
Discrimination can drastically affect racial or ethnic minorities. It can determine the group’s life chances and living conditions, thereby affecting areas like employment, education, health, and housing. Discrimination can affect health in a number of ways. First, it can lead to differences in the quality and access to quality of health care. Secondly, the experience of certain incidents of discriminating treatment by ethnicity or race can cause psychic distress as well as other change...