Aspects of the Opium War (1839-1842) (Essay Sample)

Student’s name Instructor’s name Course Date Aspects of the Opium War (1839-1842) I. Introduction At the beginning of the XIX century, Qin dynasty continued to pursue the policy of isolation from the rest of the world. However, this situation could no longer hold many European powers that were at a stage of rapid economic growth and needed new markets for their goods, cheap sources of raw materials and labor. The middle of the XIX century became a crucial period in the history of China. This change had been associated with violent familiarization of Chinese society with forms of civilization, worked out by the European global development. Capitalism was a social phenomenon of the global order, which had formed in the middle of the XIX century and was based on the world market in the capitalist civilization. The paper will discuss the aspects of cooperation of western powers, and especially England, and China and the efforts to enter the Chinese market more aggressively, which at the time was slightly opened to foreign trade, and caused a military conflict. Strengthening of the Chinese contacts with the outside world. Chinese Empire was fully capable not only to solve problems in ways repeatedly tested in the history of the Chinese state but also to ensure economic growth (expansion of cultivated areas, increase in manufactured products, population growth, the increasing complexity of trade relations, etc.). However, from the European point of view, it was a "growth without development". This kind of development meant the complexity of technological links between man and nature, the intensification of the technologies. At the turn of XVIII-XIX centuries western powers, and especially England, were trying more aggressively to enter the Chinese market, which at that time was slightly opened to foreign trade. Since the second half of the XVIII century, all China's foreign trade could take place only in Guangzhou (except trade with Russia, which was conducted through Kyakhta). All other forms of trade relations with foreigners were prohibited and severely punished under Chinese law. The Chinese government has sought to control the relationship with foreigners, and to this end, the number of Chinese traders, who had been authorized to deal with them, was reduced to a minimum. Only 13 trading firms, constituting the Gunhan corporation, had the right to deal with foreign merchants. They acted under the exacting control of officials, sent from Beijing. “The trade with China that commenced from the seventeen-sixties became increasingly important for the expansion of British commerce overseas” (Hao, 492). Foreign merchants were allowed to stay on the Chinese territory only within a small concession, located near Guangzhou. But they could stay on the territory of the settlement only for a few months in summer and spring. Chinese authorities sought to prevent the spread of information among foreigners about China, believing that they could be used to penetrate into the country without going through the bureaucratic control. Chinese themselves were forbidden under penalty of death to teach foreigners the Chinese language. Moreover, even the export of books was banned, since they could also be used to study the Chinese language and to obtain information about the country. Chinese were not able either to change their associations with outside nations and people groups when all is said in done and the relationship amongst Chinese and Western culture specifically, or to determine issues of the advanced change of Chinese culture (Geng, 29). A difficult task was set for the ruling circles of England - to achieve from the Chinese government broader opening of the Chinese state to foreign trade and setting the contractual legal basis. The problem of change of structure of trade relations between two states was also important. “They involved Britain’s determination to force China into the modern, industrial global economy against their will, and to use opium as their major import to exchange for China’s commodities of silk and tea—a tactic violently opposed by the Chinese” (Hanes, Sanello 12). The aggravation of the Anglo-Chinese relations. Attempts of England to establish diplomatic relations with the Chinese empire on the basis of the principles adopted in the European world, taken at the end of XVIII - the beginning of the XIX century, were unsuccessful. In 1793, a mission led by Lord George McCartney was sent to China. It was a widely educated man and an experienced diplomat, who headed the British Embassy in Russia for several years. The mission was sent at the expense of the British East India Company, but it represented the interests of the British government. McCartney arrived in China on board the 66-cannon warship, accompanied by a large number of representatives of the academic and cultural circles of Britain. The expedition consisted of two vessels laden with product samples produced by the British industry. “China would have actually benefited from the increase in trade – had it not arrived through gunboats” (Keller et al., 854). The talks were held in an atmosphere of rather mutual benevolence, than hostility. The British mission was graciously accepted by Emperor Qianlong, though not expressed a desire to meet the British proposals. Britain could at best become for the government of the Celestial Empire dependent barbaric state with which China would maintain friendly relations. The English envoys were told that China had everything needed and it did not need the English goods, samples of which were brought by McCartney, were taken as a tribute. Thus, China rejected the offer to join the world of modern economic and international relations on an equal basis. Nevertheless, the Chinese sovereign power from the moral and legal point of view had the right to maintain its isolation and almost complete isolation from the outside world. So, in the first decades of the XIX century, there were sharp differences in the relations between China and the West, primarily China and Britain: trade between the two sides expanded, changing its character, but there were no international legal institutions that could regulate it. The problem of changing the nature of trade between the two countries not contradicting the principles of the British mercantilist policy was equally difficult for the English side. However, the Chinese internal market was focused on local production. The words uttered by Emperor Qianlong about the presence of everything that he could wish in the country were ascertaining the real situation. English merchants tried hard to find a product that would be accepted by the Chinese market. At the end of the XVIII century there began to appear the outlines of the following configuration of trade relations in the Far East. England supplied fabric factory production to India, the Chinese market received these goods from India. However, the Chinese market had not sought to take not only the English cloth but also cotton from India. Yet such an important product was eventually found - it was opium, which traditional producer was the Mughal empire before its transformation into a British colony. That opium as perhaps the most convenient commodity for trade with China was elected by the English merchants as a means of leveling the trade balance between the countries. In India, the poppy cultivation had been turned into a monopoly of the East India Company, obliging Indian farmers produce this plant and take it as tax collectors companies. The merchants, who had a patent of the company, brought it to the Chinese coast. Opium was sold there to Chinese merchants, of course, for money, which is subsequently used for the purchase of tea, and other products that were interesting for England. Thus, from the point of view of the commercial interests, the British problem was solved: silver continued to feed the arteries of the British economy and at the same time imports from China continued to grow. “Opium was an important element in Sino-British trade and relations even after renewed Chinese prohibition in 1821” (Wei, 137). But the arisen situation had certain moral aspect clearly aware of both the West and the East. Trade in opium was quite rightly considered by public opinion in England and in China as immoral, undignified way of solving business problems. The leadership of the East India Company's banned the spread of opium in British India and its export to China was sought to present as a private matter of merchants, who traded with that country. The representatives of the opposition in the British Parliament repeatedly criticized the opium trade. In China, the import of opium was repeatedly banned by imperial decree. “Opium smoker was an accurate reflection of the average Chinese man” (Bruner, 205). Very powerful commercial, and as a consequence - political interests were affected in the case of the opium trade. So its voluntary termination by the British could not become real under the pressure of moral motives. The only force that could stop this trade was the Chinese government that was increasingly concerned about the developing situation. But the accepted orders were not executed. Not far from the Chinese coast, in Guangzhou, foreigners made a floating warehouse where opium was stored and where Chinese traders received it. Local Chinese authorities could not, and partly did not want to put an end to smuggling since they themselves were interested in this fishery. From extravagance to need, opium experienced diverse stages; distinctive images and values were developed and credited to it. It served in various purposes (Zheng, 4). In 1836-1838 according to the orders of the Emperor the most influential power officials took part in the discussion of the current situation - they were invited to send to the capital the memoranda outlining the program of measures necessary to stop the opium tra...