Differential Vulnerabilities to Water Insecurity Under a Changing Climate: A Focus on Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Thesis Sample)

Differential Vulnerabilities to Water Insecurity Under a Changing Climate: A Focus on Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) Name Institution Course Instructor Date Differential Vulnerabilities to Water Insecurity Under a Changing Climate: A Focus on Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) Water insecurity is a challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), through which climate change has tremendously affected, and gender disparity has worsened. Water insecurity is the population's ability to protect itself from water-borne pollution and disasters, to preserve ecosystems in an atmosphere of peace and political stability, and to ensure sustainable access to sufficient amounts and acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socioeconomic development (Tallman et al., 2022). Two billion people do not have access to safe water in their homes, four billion lack reasonable access to improved sanitation facilities, and 4.5 billion people do not use establishments with a safely managed sanitation facility (Tallman et al., 2022). Due to their cultural role in water collection and management, water deficits most affect women and girls in this region (Chirgwin et al., 2021). Water insecurity adversely affects women and children fetching water, controlling and distributing water inside homes, and performing domestic chores, universally recognized as women's and children's tasks (Sorenson et al., 2011; Geere & Cortobius, 2017). This literature review focuses on critical factors such as gender roles and responsibilities in the provision of water, availability of structures and facilities, cultural and religious barriers, policies and regulations, scarce and inadequate information/data, and the impact of climatic change on gendered access to water. Gendered Responsibilities and Water Collection Burdens The social and structural roles of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are tightly linked with the delegation of women and girls, who perform the main chores, including water sourcing, cooking, and cleaning, and taking care of children (MacArthur et al., 2020). The responsibility puts them at risk of experiencing physical stress while at the same time locking them out on education and economic actions. Household WASH’s firm social and structural duties align with women’s and girls’ responsibilities, including water collection and processing, preparing food, washing, and child rearing (MacArthur et al., 2020). This entails a responsibility that exposes them physically and limits their choices regarding schooling and income. The distance to water sources exacerbates the burden on women. In their study, Geere and Cortobius (2017) established that in most countries, especially rural regions, women and girls travel several kilometres searching for water, usually a round trip tour several times daily. Sorenson et al. (2011) opined that water acquisition entails opportunity cost, which erases income earning mainly for women. This time-consuming activity limits their chances of participating in other fruitful processes, such as schooling or earning an income. Infrastructure and Technology Access The differential access to water infrastructure and technology plays a significant role in water insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa, specifically for women. Physical structures are central in defining the levels of access to water, and where there are differences in such access, there is always a connection to women's disadvantage. Floods and droughts socially and economically eradicate people's means of sustenance, homes, infrastructure, and crops while generating new needs on limited resources. MacArthur et al. (2020) argue that in most societies, women are denied access to improved water sources due to socio-cultural norms and economic reasons, denying them the benefits of emerging technologies in water and sanitation systems. In most regions, there are either average or poorly developed water systems, which cause much suffering to women mainly responsible for water collection. Chirgwin et al. (2021) estimate that each year, 1.6 million people die from a lack of access to and use of clean water, hygiene (WASH), and sanitation, with more than one million of those fatalities being attributable to gastrointestinal disorders like acute respiratory diseases and diarrhea. They also claim that utilization and accessibility to WASH reduce nutrition and education standards besides posing a risk and stress to vulnerable groups, particularly women and girls, principally in sub-Saharan Africa. According to Chirgwin et al. (2021), the current literature evidences the success of interventions that increase the use of WASH technologies in low- and middle-income countries. Unfortunately, such initiatives usually do not consider gender-related requirements and limitations. The lack of gender-sensitive infrastructure also means that women and girls often have to rely on unsafe water sources. Women and children are the most commonly engaged as water carriers; they spend much time fetching water (many trips take over an hour) to their families (Sorenson et al., 2011). This situation impacts their health, not to mention that they have to allocate more time and energy to treating water before using it. Socio-Cultural Norms and Water Security In as much as socio-cultural characteristics define water security, it is essential to note the status and role assigned to gender more specifically. Approximately 663 million people had insufficient access to improved drinking water sources in 2015 (Geere & Cortobius, 2017). Across most Sub-Saharan African cultures and traditions, the woman's role is to fetch and be in charge of water in the household. This social norm imprinted in society affects women most and hinders them from participating in other socio-economic ventures. Geere and Cortobius (2017) argue that these norms disempower women in water management decisions, thus excluding their opinions on water management decisions. Socio-cultural norms affect the distribution and usage of water within homes and other social groups within the society. This is because, in most patriarchal societies, decision-making concerning the use of water resources is mainly in the hands of men; hence, women and girls bear the brunt of inadequate safe water for their needs. According to Geere and Cortobius (2017), these norms increase the gendered impacts of climate change adaptation strategies where women have little representation in formal water management institutions. They cannot participate in the decision-making processes of the policies that concern their water security and thus remain hostages of their marginalization. Institutional and Governance Frameworks Water security is a critical area influenced significantly by institutional and governance systems. The issue of disparity in water management based on gender comes into play. Effective governance frameworks that include gender mainstreaming can significantly enhance water security for women. As noted by Tandon et al. (2022), most of the present policies and institutions in SSAs do not pay attention to the peculiar gender concerns. Such a lapse leads to water management practices that continue to exclude women's experiences and predicaments, exposing them further to water insecurity. Active policies and legislation in the field of water are essential for efficient water control. MacArthur et al. (2020) stressed that women need policies sensitive to their gender and should be included in water policies if the differential effects of water insecurity on women are to be redressed. Gender-blind institutions do not consider women’s water requirements or involve them in decisions regarding water issues. The accountability systems in place impact the functions of the governance structures. Barchi and Winter (2020) specify that organizations must be accountable for the gendered water policies. Regardless of good intentions, public policies may not achieve their goals without monitoring and compliance mechanisms. There is a need to ensure that women are engaged in water governance by developing policies, strategies, and institutions that guarantee participation in all the governance structures. Gender Differential Impacts of Climate Change on Water Security Regarding the impacts of climate change on water insecurity in the context of sub-Saharan African women, they are more affected than men. Since droughts are becoming more frequent, precipitation is changing, and extreme weather conditions escalate, climate change aggravates water scarcity, influencing women to access reliable and clean water. Tandon et al. (2022) point out that women are in a more disadvantageous position than men whenever the usual water sources are strained by climate change, as they are the ones who are primarily assigned to water procurement and its management. It inflicts severe disturbance in the daily lives of women. They are negatively affected by limiting their chances in the economic and educational realms because they have to travel longer distances and spend additional time and strength to acquire water. The worst affected area in terms of the economic effects of climate change, particularly water insecurity, is where women are situated. Women’s livelihoods are affected mainly by water constraints, including those of agriculture and small-scale traders. Upadhyay (2003) found that water insecurity decreases crop yields and food availability and decreases households’ income. Most of the time, women are the ones who are charged with the responsibility of caring for the children and the family; because of this essential need, water denies women the opportunity to engage in income-generating activities, hence compounding the situation. Pommells et al. (2018) state that women who are forced to use insecure areas more often are vulnerable to being subjected to GBV since they have no access to safe water and sanitation...