Three Theories of Motivation; Instinct Theory, Drive-Reduction Theory and the Arousal Theory (Term Paper Sample)

Student’s name
Professor’s name
Course
Date
Psychology
Chapter 8
1
There are three theories of motivation; instinct theory, drive-reduction theory and the arousal theory. According to the instinct theory, behavior is influenced by the enjoyment derived from the behavior. The drive reduction theory attributes behavior as an attempt to return the body to a state of normalcy by reducing tension in the body. Some drives such as ambition can be learned while others such as hunger are physiological. According to the arousal theory, human beings have an optimum level for arousal which shifts from time to time. Human behavior is motivated by the need to keep arousal at an optimum level. This kind of motivation is both hereditary and neurologically acquired.
Intrinsic motivation is the desire to perform certain behavior due to the joy derived from the behavior while extrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a certain action to avoid punishment, or to get a certain reward.
2
Hunger and eating are influenced by both external and internal factors. The brain performs various functions which affect hunger and eating by constantly monitoring body fats, glucose, carbohydrates and other hormones in the body. Hunger and eating are also associated with certain goal directed behaviors, which are influenced by senses such as smell, sight and thinking about food, which are derived from external stimuli. In turn, such external stimuli alter the production of insulin and glucose. Emotional factors such as anxiety, anger, boredom and depression can also affect eating habits, either positively or negatively.
3
Exploration and curiosity motivate one towards the primary goal of finding out new things that are unknown. Manipulation on the other hand is limited to primates with agile fingers and toes, and is considered as an active process.
4
There are three major theories of emotion; the James Lange theory, the Cannon-Bard theory and the Cognitive theory. According to the James Lange theory, emotions arise from physiological changes which are caused by stimuli. The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that biological changes are responsible for emotional changes. The cognitive theory links emotional variations to an individual’s judgment of the situation.
Chapter 9
1
Developmental psychology is the scientific study on the development of human beings through their life which explains their development and the reasons for this development. Teratogens are any substances which hinder the development of an unborn child. These are mostly environmental agents such as alcohol and tobacco among others. Teratogens can lead to mental disabilities in children, premature births, low birth weight and still births.
2
Newborns are born with a number of reflexes which include the moro reflex which enables the new born to respond to loud noise, the Babinski reflex which enables the baby to fan their foot when their foot is touched, the sucking reflex which allows the baby to suck when an item touches the lips, the rooting reflex which enables the child to turn their head to objects such as the breast, the grasping reflex which enables the baby to grasp tightly to objects when they touch their palms, and the plantar reflex which causes the baby to curl toes when touched on the foot. Their perceptual abilities include hearing, vision, taste, smell, touch and the intermodal perception.
3
The motor development is the first change experienced during infancy. A baby is at first able to roll over within the first 2 months. By the age of 6 months, a baby is able to sit on their own without support. At the age of 1 year, a baby should be in a position to walk on their own. Perceptual development allows children to respond to the external stimuli such as recognizing a photo of their mother. Moral development enables a child to associate punishment with wrong doing and reward with a good deed.
4
The first year of a child is important in the development of language in a child. During the first year, children develop the foundations responsible for speech and the development of language. Within the first three years, a child is able to understand more than they can communicate across. During the first three months, a baby learns to laugh, coo and communicate with the use of gestures. By the age of 1 and a half years, a child is able to utter singular words. At the age of 2, a child should be able to form short sentences. By the age of 3, a child can form complex sentences. At the age of six years, a child should have attained language development fully.
5
Adolescence is considered as a period of transitions from childhood into adulthood. Adolescents undergo various physical changes such as puberty which are caused by hormonal imbalance. These hormones affects their behavior and moods. Cognitive changes are also evident in a more deductive form of reasoning. Their judgments are also based on morals such as justice as opposed to emotional judgments common during childhood.
Chapter 10
1
Psychodynamic theories explain that behavior is caused by psychological forces and hence behavior is unconscious. According to Freud, unconscious behavior is evident in ideas, thoughts and feelings which we are often unaware of. He attributes human behavior to unconscious instincts and motivations. These instincts can either be destructive or self-preservative. The term sexual instinct is used to refer to all pleasures while libido is used to define the energy derived from the sexual. He identified three structures through which personalities are formed; id, the superego and the ego. The id is present even at birth and it causes individuals to seek expression. The ego is aimed at expressing an individual’s needs to the world effectively and safely. The superego comprises of the social and parental principles which have been internalized by an individual.
Jung identified two types of unconsciousness; the collective consciousness and the personal consciousness. He also identified archetypes which are visible to others around us. These archetypes are closely tied to two attitudes; extroverts which is evident in people who are focused on their external world and form more interactions with people around them, and introverts who tend to focus on their personal feelings and thoughts, and are considered to be less social with others around them.
Adler disagreed with Freud and argued that people are motivated by inner motivations to perfect themselves. He suggested that individuals are motivated by the need to overcome their weaknesses and inferiority.
According to Horney, sexual instincts are based on the need for basic security. This causes some individuals to adapt neurotic lifestyles which limit their independence. Others resolve to hostility while others tend to be withdrawn from people.
Erikson emphasized the role played by child-parent relationships on the development of an individual’s personality. Various difficulties experienced early in life are considered responsible for an individual effectiveness to various situations in their later life.
2
The humanistic theory emphasizes the human need to achieve goodness and their constant strife to achieve high levels of living. According to Rogers, human beings strive towards achieving positive goals and their personalities are built towards achieving this function. Humans have a tendency to pursue self-actualization, which is based on a self-concept.
3
The traits theory groups people into various personality traits which are based on characteristics such as dependency, sociability and aggressiveness. Cat...